The pastry kitchen operates under different physics than the savory line. Where savory cooking manipulates fats and proteins, pastry masters two molecular transformations: sugar crystallization and egg coagulation. Understanding these reactions transforms dessert sauces from mysterious to predictable, from temperamental to controllable.

Caramel Physics: The Difference Between Wet and Dry Methods

Caramel is pure chemistry—sucrose molecules breaking apart under heat, recombining into hundreds of new compounds that create color, bitterness, and complexity.

Understanding Caramelization Stages

Temperature Stages (all approximate):

  • 320°F (160°C): Light caramel, golden, mild sweetness
  • 340°F (170°C): Medium caramel, amber, balanced sweet/bitter
  • 350°F (177°C): Dark caramel, mahogany, pronounced bitter notes
  • 375°F (191°C): Burnt, acrid, unusable

The 10-Degree Rule: Caramel continues cooking after removing from heat. Pull it 10°F before target color.

Wet Caramel Method (Easier, More Forgiving)

The wet method dissolves sugar in water before heating, slowing crystallization and giving more control.

Classic Wet Caramel:

Ingredients:

  • 1 cup (200g) granulated sugar
  • ¼ cup (60ml) water
  • Pinch of cream of tartar or 1 tsp lemon juice (prevents crystallization)

Preparation:

  1. Combine sugar, water, acid in heavy-bottomed saucepan (stainless or copper—not nonstick)
  2. Stir once to ensure all sugar is moistened
  3. Heat over medium-high, DO NOT STIR after this point
  4. Brush down sides of pan with wet pastry brush if sugar crystals appear
  5. Swirl pan gently to even out color (no stirring)
  6. Watch carefully once mixture starts coloring (happens fast)
  7. Remove from heat when desired color achieved
  8. Stop cooking by setting pan in ice bath for 10 seconds, or adding cream/butter immediately

Why No Stirring?: Stirring introduces crystals to supersaturated solution, causing entire batch to crystallize (“seize”).

Dry Caramel Method (Advanced, Faster)

The dry method heats pure sugar without water—faster results but requires more attention.

Dry Caramel:

Ingredients:

  • 1 cup (200g) granulated sugar

Preparation:

  1. Spread sugar in even layer in heavy pan
  2. Heat over medium (not high—burns too easily)
  3. Watch for sugar at edges to melt
  4. Use heatproof spatula to gently push melted sugar toward center
  5. Continue pushing and folding until all sugar melts
  6. Remove from heat at desired color

Advantage: No water to evaporate, faster caramelization Disadvantage: Less forgiving, easier to burn

Caramel Sauce (Salted Caramel)

Ingredients:

  • 1 cup (200g) sugar
  • 6 tbsp (85g) butter, cubed, room temperature
  • ½ cup (120ml) heavy cream, room temperature
  • 1 tsp sea salt (or to taste)

Preparation:

  1. Make wet or dry caramel to 340°F (medium amber)
  2. Remove from heat
  3. Add butter, whisk until melted (caramel will bubble violently—normal)
  4. Slowly add cream while whisking constantly (violent bubbling again)
  5. Whisk until completely smooth
  6. Add salt, stir
  7. Cool to room temperature (thickens as it cools)

Storage: Refrigerate up to 2 weeks; reheat gently to loosen

Alternative Ingredients:

  • Cream substitute: Coconut cream (vegan, slightly different flavor)
  • Butter substitute: Coconut oil (less rich)
  • Sugar substitute: Coconut sugar (darker color, molasses notes, doesn’t caramelize the same—more like brown butter)

Troubleshooting Caramel

Crystallized/Seized:

  • Cause: Stirring, or sugar crystals on pan sides fell into mixture
  • Prevention: Don’t stir; brush sides with wet brush
  • Fix: Add 2 tbsp water, reheat and dissolve (starts process over)

Too Dark/Burnt Taste:

  • Cause: Overcooked
  • Fix: No fix—discard and start over

Separated Sauce (butter/cream split from sugar):

  • Cause: Ingredients too cold, or caramel too hot when added
  • Fix: Reheat gently while whisking vigorously; blend with immersion blender

Grainy Texture:

  • Cause: Sugar began to recrystallize
  • Prevention: Use acid (cream of tartar/lemon juice) in wet method
  • Fix: Reheat gently, whisk vigorously

Crème Anglaise: The Mother of Ice Cream

Crème anglaise is a pourable custard sauce—the foundation of ice cream, bavarian cream, and countless desserts. It requires precise temperature control to thicken egg yolks without scrambling.

The Science of Custard

Egg yolk proteins denature (unfold) and coagulate (bond together) when heated:

  • 150°F (65°C): Proteins begin to denature
  • 160-170°F (71-77°C): Optimal thickening range
  • 180°F (82°C): Nappé consistency achieved
  • 185°F+ (85°C+): Proteins coagulate into curds (scrambled eggs)

The Goal: Heat to 180°F exactly—thick enough to coat a spoon, but not scrambled.

Classic Crème Anglaise

Ingredients:

  • 2 cups (480ml) whole milk
  • ½ cup (120ml) heavy cream
  • ½ cup (100g) granulated sugar (divided)
  • 5 large egg yolks
  • 1 vanilla bean (split and scraped) or 2 tsp vanilla extract
  • Pinch of salt

Preparation:

  1. Heat milk, cream, ¼ cup sugar, vanilla bean pod and seeds, salt in saucepan to 170°F (77°C)
  2. Whisk egg yolks with remaining ¼ cup sugar in bowl until pale yellow
  3. Temper yolks: Slowly pour ½ cup hot milk mixture into yolks while whisking constantly
  4. Add warmed yolk mixture back to saucepan, whisking constantly
  5. Cook over medium-low heat, stirring constantly with wooden spoon in figure-8 pattern
  6. Monitor temperature closely—target is 180°F (82°C)
  7. Test nappé: Dip spoon in custard, draw line with finger across back; if line holds for 3-5 seconds, it’s ready
  8. Immediately strain through fine chinois into bowl set over ice bath
  9. Stir occasionally as it cools
  10. Refrigerate up to 3 days

The Figure-8 Pattern: Prevents custard from scorching on pan bottom by keeping it constantly moving.

Nappé Consistency Test

Visual cue: Custard should coat the back of a wooden spoon thickly. When you draw a line through it with your finger, the line should hold cleanly for 3-5 seconds before slowly flowing back together.

Too Thin: Below 175°F (79°C), needs more cooking Perfect: 178-182°F (81-83°C) Too Thick/Curdled: Above 185°F (85°C), proteins overcoagulated

Flavor Variations

Coffee Crème Anglaise:

  • Steep 2 tbsp coarsely ground coffee in hot milk/cream 15 minutes, strain before tempering

Chocolate Crème Anglaise:

  • Add 4 oz (113g) chopped dark chocolate to finished custard, whisk until melted

Earl Grey Crème Anglaise:

  • Steep 3 Earl Grey tea bags in hot milk/cream 10 minutes, remove before tempering

Citrus Crème Anglaise:

  • Add zest of 1 lemon or orange to milk during heating, strain before tempering

Alternative Ingredients:

  • Milk substitute: Oat milk + coconut cream (2:1 ratio) for similar richness
  • Egg substitute: Cornstarch (3 tbsp per 2 cups liquid, different texture but thickens)
  • Sugar substitute: Honey or maple syrup (reduce to ⅓ cup, adds flavor)

Troubleshooting Crème Anglaise

Curdled/Scrambled:

  • Cause: Overheated above 185°F
  • Fix: Immediately strain into blender, blend on high 30 seconds (can sometimes rescue)
  • Prevention: Use thermometer, don’t leave unattended

Too Thin:

  • Cause: Undercooked, below 175°F
  • Fix: Return to heat, cook to proper temperature

Tastes Eggy:

  • Cause: Undercooked, or too many egg yolks
  • Fix: Cook to proper temperature; vanilla helps mask egg flavor

Coulis vs. Compote vs. Purée: Fruit Sauce Taxonomy

Fruit sauces differ by texture, cooking method, and sugar content.

Coulis: Smooth, Pourable, Raw or Cooked

Definition: Strained fruit sauce, completely smooth, no chunks

Raspberry Coulis (Classic):

Ingredients:

  • 2 cups (250g) fresh or frozen raspberries
  • ¼ cup (50g) granulated sugar (adjust to fruit sweetness)
  • 1 tbsp (15ml) lemon juice

Preparation:

  1. Combine raspberries and sugar in bowl, let macerate 15 minutes
  2. Blend until completely smooth
  3. Strain through fine chinois, pressing with spatula to extract maximum juice
  4. Add lemon juice, stir
  5. Adjust consistency: Too thick? Add water tablespoon by tablespoon

Storage: Refrigerate up to 5 days, freeze up to 3 months

Characteristics: Smooth, pourable, bright fruit flavor, no texture

Variations:

  • Strawberry coulis: Hull strawberries, same method
  • Mango coulis: Ripe mango, reduce sugar to 2 tbsp
  • Blackberry coulis: Same as raspberry (more seeds to strain)

Compote: Chunky, Cooked, Jammy

Definition: Cooked fruit sauce with visible chunks, similar to jam but looser

Stone Fruit Compote:

Ingredients:

  • 1 lb (450g) stone fruit (peaches, plums, apricots), pitted and diced
  • ½ cup (100g) sugar
  • ¼ cup (60ml) water or orange juice
  • 1 cinnamon stick
  • Zest of 1 lemon
  • Pinch of salt

Preparation:

  1. Combine all ingredients in saucepan
  2. Cook over medium heat until sugar dissolves
  3. Simmer 15-20 minutes, stirring occasionally, until fruit breaks down but chunks remain
  4. Remove cinnamon stick
  5. Adjust thickness: Too thin? Simmer longer. Too thick? Add liquid

Storage: Refrigerate up to 1 week

Characteristics: Chunky, thick, cooked fruit flavor, jammy texture

Variations:

  • Apple compote: Diced apples, brown sugar, vanilla
  • Berry compote: Mixed berries, less cooking time (5-8 minutes)
  • Cranberry compote: Cranberries, orange zest, walnuts

Purée: Thick, Smooth, Intense

Definition: Cooked or raw fruit blended smooth but not strained, thicker than coulis

Roasted Plum Purée:

Ingredients:

  • 2 lbs (900g) plums, halved and pitted
  • ⅓ cup (67g) sugar
  • 1 tbsp balsamic vinegar
  • 2 sprigs thyme

Preparation:

  1. Arrange plums cut-side up in baking dish
  2. Sprinkle with sugar, drizzle with balsamic
  3. Add thyme sprigs
  4. Roast at 400°F (204°C) for 30-40 minutes until soft and caramelized
  5. Remove thyme
  6. Blend until smooth (don’t strain)
  7. Adjust consistency with water if needed

Storage: Refrigerate up to 1 week, freeze up to 6 months

Characteristics: Thick, intense, can be spread or dolloped, concentrated flavor

Alternative Sweeteners:

  • Honey: Use ¾ the amount of sugar
  • Maple syrup: Adds distinct flavor, use ½ the amount
  • Agave: Use ⅔ the amount
  • Date paste: For refined sugar-free, blend dates with water

Ganache Ratios: From Glaze to Truffle

Ganache is an emulsion of chocolate and cream. The ratio determines texture—from pourable glaze to pipeable truffle filling.

Understanding Ganache Ratios

Ratio (Chocolate : Cream by weight)

1:1 - Pourable glaze (room temperature), soft truffle filling (chilled) 2:1 - Thick glaze, pipeable frosting, firm truffles 3:1 - Very firm, sliceable, intense chocolate flavor

The Basic Method

1:1 Ganache (Glaze/Soft Truffle):

Ingredients:

  • 8 oz (225g) dark chocolate (60-70%), chopped fine
  • 8 oz (225g / 1 cup) heavy cream
  • Pinch of salt

Preparation:

  1. Place chopped chocolate in heatproof bowl with salt
  2. Heat cream to just under boiling (180°F/82°C)
  3. Pour hot cream over chocolate
  4. Wait 1 minute without touching (lets chocolate begin melting)
  5. Whisk from center outward in small circles, gradually widening
  6. Continue whisking until completely smooth, glossy, and emulsified
  7. Use immediately as glaze (warm), or refrigerate for truffles (chilled)

Temperature Matters:

  • Warm (90-95°F/32-35°C): Pourable glaze
  • Room temp (65-70°F/18-21°C): Spreadable frosting
  • Chilled (40°F/4°C): Firm, scoopable for truffles

2:1 Ganache (Truffle/Frosting)

Ingredients:

  • 16 oz (450g) dark chocolate, chopped
  • 8 oz (225g / 1 cup) heavy cream
  • 2 tbsp (28g) butter (optional, for shine and creaminess)

Preparation: Same method as 1:1

Uses:

  • Rolled truffles (refrigerate until firm, scoop and roll)
  • Piped frosting (room temperature)
  • Cake filling (spreadable at room temp)

Flavored Ganache Variations

Liquor Ganache:

  • Add 2 tbsp bourbon, rum, or Grand Marnier after emulsifying
  • Alcohol thins ganache slightly—use 2:1 ratio minimum

Spiced Ganache:

  • Steep cinnamon stick, cardamom pods, star anise in hot cream 15 minutes
  • Strain before pouring over chocolate

Coffee Ganache:

  • Add 1 tbsp instant espresso powder to hot cream, dissolve before pouring

Salted Caramel Ganache:

  • Replace half the cream with salted caramel sauce
  • Use 2:1 ratio for proper consistency

Alternative Ingredients:

  • Cream substitute: Full-fat coconut cream (vegan, slight coconut flavor)
  • Chocolate types:
    • Milk chocolate: Softer ganache, use 2.5:1 ratio for same firmness
    • White chocolate: Much softer, use 3:1 ratio minimum
  • Vegan ganache: Dark chocolate (check dairy-free) + coconut cream

Troubleshooting Ganache

Broken/Separated (looks grainy, oily):

  • Cause: Cream too hot, or overmixing while too warm
  • Fix: Add 1 tbsp warm cream, whisk gently; or blend with immersion blender

Too Soft (won’t firm up):

  • Cause: Ratio too cream-heavy, or milk/white chocolate used
  • Fix: Melt and add more chopped chocolate, re-emulsify

Too Firm (can’t spread):

  • Cause: Ratio too chocolate-heavy
  • Fix: Warm slightly, or add warm cream tablespoon by tablespoon

Grainy Texture:

  • Cause: Chocolate overheated, or seized from water contact
  • Prevention: Chop chocolate fine, dry equipment, don’t overheat cream

The Temperature Chart: Pastry Precision

Technique Critical Temp Why It Matters
Light Caramel 320°F (160°C) Sugar breaks down, color begins
Dark Caramel 350°F (177°C) Deep flavor, near-burnt notes
Custard (Nappé) 180°F (82°C) Thick but not scrambled
Custard (Curdled) 185°F+ (85°C) Proteins coagulate, becomes grainy
Cream for Ganache 180°F (82°C) Hot enough to melt chocolate fully
Working Ganache 90°F (32°C) Pourable but not separated

The $15 Investment: An instant-read thermometer eliminates guesswork and prevents disasters. Digital thermometers with 1-degree accuracy are available for under $20.

Sugar States: Beyond Caramel

For advanced pastry work, sugar progresses through specific stages useful for different applications:

Thread (215-230°F / 102-110°C): Syrups, glazes Soft Ball (235-240°F / 113-116°C): Fudge, fondant Firm Ball (245-250°F / 118-121°C): Caramels, nougat Hard Ball (250-265°F / 121-130°C): Marshmallows, gummies Soft Crack (270-290°F / 132-143°C): Taffy, butterscotch Hard Crack (300-310°F / 149-154°C): Brittles, lollipops Caramel (320-350°F / 160-177°C): Caramel sauce, decoration

The Pastry Mindset: Precision Over Intuition

Savory cooking rewards intuition and adaptation. Pastry demands precision:

  • Measure by weight (grams), not volume (cups)
  • Use thermometers, not visual cues alone
  • Follow timing exactly on temperature-sensitive steps
  • Prep ingredients to proper temperature before starting

But within those constraints, creativity flourishes:

  • Flavor combinations are infinite
  • Plating presentations offer artistic expression
  • Texture contrasts create memorable desserts

Master the physics—crystallization, coagulation, emulsification—and you gain freedom to improvise dessert sauces for any application.

Start this weekend with crème anglaise. Perfect the nappé consistency. Then make caramel sauce, watching the color transform from gold to amber. Finally, create a simple 1:1 ganache and see how chocolate and cream become something greater than their parts.

The pastry kitchen isn’t about following recipes—it’s about controlling molecular transformations with precision and turning sugar and eggs into magic.

What’s your biggest pastry challenge? Share your caramel disasters or custard triumphs, and let’s troubleshoot the chemistry together.